(1) NATURE & SCOPE OF BLOLOGY
Science : The word ‘science’ is derived from a Latin word
‘scientia’ , meaning , ‘to know’. Science is a process that is used to answer
the questions about nature.
µ
Science is
a body of knowledge derived from observations and experiments, which are
directed to determine the principles underlying
what is being studied.
Steps of scientific method :
1.
Observation 2. Formulation of Hypothesis
3. Testing of Hypothesis 4.
Developing theory
1. Observation
It is simply the ability to notice something,
keeping records and finding out answer for question framed by the observer.
A
scientific investigator must have a clear idea about what is to be observed and
what is to be ignored. A scientist needs to direct the observations that raise
question, like ‘what’, ‘why’, ‘how’. Measuring everything is neither wise nor
possible. It is also very important to find out the proper method of
measurement and keeping record of data. All data should be preserved because
any one of them might be useful in answering any present or future question.
2. Formulation of
Hypothesis
The next requirement is to develop a number of
potential explanations or hypothesis based on the observation. Suppose, suddenly
you realize that a room is dark. As an explanation for this perception, you may
formulate several hypothesis , such as the switches are turned off or the bulbs
are burnt out or, perhaps, you are going blind. Actually, a hypothesis is a
logical explanation that accounts for the observation. This step involves
guessing or predicting the plausible answers to a question. A good hypothesis
should be as simple as possible. A hypothetical proposition might stand true or
false. Hence, the data that emerge from a set of observations must be analysed
which may help to make some kind of coherent generalization.
3. Testing of Hypothesis
You need to test the hypothesis. For this, you must
devise ways of testing. Generally, the scientists carry out an experiment for testing
one or more hypothesis. Based on the result of experiment they eliminate or
confirm one or more of the hypothesis. This process helps to reject the most
unlikely hypothesis and select the most likely one. Considering the hypothesis
made earlier for explaining the causes of darkness in the room, first, as an
experiment, you may try to switch on the light. If the room is still dark the
first hypothesis is untrue and hence it is to be rejected. The shortcoming of
this experiment is that it does not prove the other two hypothesis are true or
false.
A
standard type of experiment is called control
experiment. Usually a scientist performs two sets of parallel experiments
that are identical in all respects except in one variable.
For
example, to test the specific type of nutrient that affects the growth of
plant, you may take five pots, each containing the same type of plant. Then add
different nutrients to four of them and no nutrient to the fifth pot. This pot
will serve as a control for your experiment. In the next step, expose all the
five plants to sunlight and water them uniformly. Observe the differences in
growth of all the plants, record your data and formulate the appropriate
hypothesis.
4. Developing theory
If the repeated experiments to test a hypothesis of
the prediction give the same result again and again the hypothesis gains
validity. A hypothesis that survives repeated tests over a long period of time
and that has central importance to an area of science, may be considered a theory.
µ Robert Hooke observed the presence of cellulae (in Latin, small rooms and hence cells) as early as 1665,
whereas the actual living cells were observed a few years later (1670) by Anton van Leeuwenhoek. Actually,
Hooke’s concept of cell received the proper recognition in 1838, when a
botanist, Matthias Schleiden, carefully
studied plant tissues and developed the first statement on Cell Theory.
Following this Theodor Schwann reported
animal tissues in 1839. An important extension of Cell Theory – all living
cells arise from preexisting cells. It came 20 years later in 1862 when Louis Pasteur successfully refuted the concept of spontaneous origin
of life. Today, the likelihood of the cell theory being rejected is almost
zero.
µ Any scientific finding should be published.
publication not only helps in the spread of
knowledge
to the world communities but also facilitates further investigation and
enrichment
of
treasures of knowledge.
Biology: The Science of Life
The living organisms interact with one another as
well as with their physical and chemical environment. Biology (Bios : life; logos: to discover) is the scince that
studies living organisms.
µ The term ‘Biology’ was proposed by Lamarck & Traveranus in 1802.
Biology and its relation to other science
All the disciplines of science are interrelated.
The approach of studying biology has presently become multi-disciplinary and
more broad based then before. Today a new name-life science is often used in place of Biology, to cover its wide scope.
The
study of life science involves the knowledge of other basic sciences, such as
physics and chemistry.
This is because:-
(1) Living
organisms are made of inorganic and organic compounds.
(2) Inorganic
compounds form ions in water and influence life processes.
(3) The
acid-base equilibrium maintains pH in living organisms.
(4) Molecules
move in and out of cells by diffusion and osmosis.
(5) Energy
transfers and transformations are important for living cells.
Biology – A science of exceptions
Biology, however, is a science of exceptions. This
is because it deals with living organisms which show enormous variation and are
capable of changes. Due to evolution living organism show a number of
exceptions. Some important exceptions in biology are as follows –
µ Mature RBC of mammals are enucleated except camel and llama (Nucleated
RBC is present)
µ Normally the root of plants are positively geotropic but in mangrove
plants (Rhizophora) negatively geotropic pneumatophores are present.
µ Plant virus TMV has RNA as genetic
material instead of DNA
µ ‘Cuscuta’, a total stem parasite is a dicot without any cotyledons.
µ Ostrich, Emu, Cassowary and Kiwi are birds which cannot fly.
µ Duckbilled platypus and spiny ant eaters lay eggs like birds but they
are mammals (cledoic egg)
µ Crocodiles and alligators are reptiles having four chambered heart like
mammals instead of incomplete four chambered heart of reptiles.
µ Generally mammals have seven cervical vertebrae while sea cow has six
and sloth has nine cervical vertebrae.
µ Fishes have gills for respiration while lung has alveolar sac like
lungs.
Scope of Biology –
µ Biology influences our daily life as
well as our future.
µ The development and use of modern medicine depends on the understanding
of structure and functions of cells, tissues, organs and organ-systems of the human body.
µ Information about the life-histories of the causative agents of diseases
and their relation with man are of much value for prevention and cure of many
diseases.
µ We can also develop the skill to understand the
cause of many hereditary diseases and genetic disorders.
µ Biology helps to understand how organisms interact
with nature and the significance of maintaining biodiversity. It helps humans
to assess their position in the living world as a part of the earth’s
ecosystems.
µ Anatomy and physiology help people become aware of
the structure and function of human body.
µ A biologist can learn things related to economic
uses of plants and animals .
µ With modern biotechnology scientists have been able
to produce genetically modified (GM) crops.
µ Geneticists, evolutionists and ecologists,
independently or collectively, can work to assess the efficacy of biotechnology
and bring forth appropriate enlightenment in the modern society. The future directions
of biotechnology, conservation of biodiversity maintenance of environment and
human welfare are in the hands of biologists.
Biology in Ancient India –
µ Cultivation of rice was most likely achieved at
Mehergarh about 6,000 years ago. Wild rice was originated in the coast of
Bengal (Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Bengal).
µ Our Vedic literature recorded about 740 plants and
250 animals. The first attempt of classification is observed in Chandyogya Upanishad, which classified
animals into three categories – Jivaja (Viviparous),
e.g. mammals, Andaja (Oviparous),
e.g. birds, reptiles, insects and worms, and Udbhija (Vegetal origin), e.g. minute animals. Post-Vedic Indian
literature, such as Susruta Samhita (600 BC) classified all ‘substances’ into Sthavara (immobile) e.g. plants. Jangama (mobile), e.g. animals.
µ Susruta Samhita also mentioned about
classification of animals, such as Kulacara (those herbivores who frequently
visit the river banks. e.g. elephant, buffalo, etc.) Matsya (fish), Janghala
(wild herbivorous quadrupeds, e.g. deer) Guhasaya (carnivorous quadrupeds like
tiger, Lion, etc.)
µ In Vedic time Dhanvantari
was regarded as the God of Medicine. Actually, Susruta is one of the
earliest scientists who studied human anatomy. He has described in detail,
anatomy based on his studies on dead body. Susruta Samhita is considered as the
oldest treatise on surgery. Susruta himself carried out plastic surgery of
human nose (rhinoplasty). He used
non-poisonous living leeches for preventing clotting of blood in the
post-operative case.
µ Susruta also specialized in ophthalmic surgery (extraction of cataracts). He is therefore
acknowledged as the ‘Father of Surgery’.
µ Charaka was the first physician to present the concepts of digestion,
metabolism and immunity. According to him, a body function because it contains
three doshas, namely, bile, phlegm (split) and wind and illness is caused when
the balance among the three doshas in a human body is disturbed.
µ Charaka knew the fundamentals of genetics. For instance, he
knew the factore determinimg the sex of a child. The indigenous system of
medicine in india
is known as Ayurveda, which is the
science of living or longevity.
Aristotle: An exceptionally talented person –
Aristotle relied on observations and contributed
much in biology. About 90 percent of his writing are on scientific subjects,
mostly on biological ones.
µ Classified animal species and arranged them into
hierarchies. His mode of classification was reasonable and in some cases
strikingly modern.
µ Formulated the concept of the Great Chain of Being or Scala
Naturae – a chain of progressive change in nature . This corresponds to a
sort of evolution.
µ Dealt with over five hundred type of animals and
dissected nearly fifty of them.µStudied the developing embryo of a chick and
reported that sharks give birth to live youngones (viviparous) but do not
develop a placenta like mammals.
µ Observed the placenta in dolphins as a means of
nourishment to the foetus. Based on this similarity with mammals he classified
dolphins with mammals.
Emergence of Contemporary Biology –
µ The earliest record of scientific approach in
biology is that of a Belgian scientist Andreas
Vesalius (1514-1564). His treatise is named De Humani Corporis Fabrica (The structure of human body). In this
book, he has mentioned that the human body is composed of many complex
subsystems each with its own function. Andreas
Vesalius is honoured as the ‘Father
of Anatomy’.
µ William Harvey (1578-1657), a British scientist, first demonstrated
that the heart pumps blood and the blood circulates. His monograph was named as
Anatomical exercise on the motion of the
Heart and Blood.
µ Robert Hooke (1635-1703), a British scientist, first coined the
term cellulae in 1665 and this term is synonymous to cells. His book was named Micrographia.
µ In 1670, a Dutch
cloth merchant turned into a scientist. Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), observed
the real living cells with the aid of a ‘simple
microscope’ made by him. He is regarded as the inventor of ‘simple
microscope’. He was the first to draw a diagram of bacteria in 1683.
µ Aristotle’s work on classification went
unchallenged until 1753 when Carolus
Linnaeus (1707-1778) , a Swedish naturalist, published another book Species plantarum.Also he published
another book Systema Naturae in
1758. Linnaeus introduced the method of naming of plants and animals known as
the Binomial Nomenclature. Aristotle’s
Scala Naturac was the all to explain
the cause of diversities of the living things.
µ Georges Leopold Cuvier (1769-1832), a French palaeontologist, first
rejected the traditional Scala Naturae as
a unifying concept of evolution. He was also the first one to identify the
fossils of extinct bird-like reptile and laid the foundation of palaeontology, the study of fossils, as
a branch of biology. Cuvier also made major contributions in comparative anatomy.
µ Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829), a French naturalist, was the first to
discard the idea of ‘fixity of species’. His book Philosophie Zoologique was published in 1809.
µ Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882), a British naturalist, is the pioneer
in the field of biology in the nineteenth century. His monumental treatise on
the Origin of species by means of
Natural Selection : The Preservation of Favoured Races in the struggle for life
was published in 1859.
µ In 1862, Louis
Pasteur (1822-1895), a French scientist, countered the prevailing concept
of spontaneous origin of life . He established the Germ Theory of disease.
µ Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884), is regarded as the ‘Father of
Genetics’.
µ Darwin:
- In his book
On the Variation of Animals and Plants
and under Domestication (1868), Darwin put forward his own Theory of Pangenesis as the mechanism
of inheritance. According to this theory, every organ of the body produces
minute hereditary particles called pangenes
or gemmules. Darwin suggested that these gemmules were
carried through blood from every organ of the body and were collected together
into the gametes.
µ Lamarck’s concept of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
and Darwin’s
theory of Pangenesis were rejected with
the discovery of the Theory of Germplasm
in 1892 by August Weismann (1834-1914),
a German Biologist. Waismann’s
experiment on rate established that the germ (sex) cells are set apart from the
body (somatic) cells early in the embryonic development and it is only the
changes in the germplasm that can affect the characteristics of future
generations.
Misuse of Biology –
(i) Amniocentesis
is the removal of
amniotic fluid via a needle inserted through the abedomen into the uterus and
amniotic sac, in order to gain information about the foetus. The amniotic fluid
contains cells (amniocytes) of the amniotic membrane and some foetal skin
cells. The centres for genetic counseling offer amniocentesis on request of
women for chromosome analysis. The amniocentesis technique has been developed
for detecting foetal abnormalities by analyzing chromosomal defect or aberration
of the foetus. With the realization that the test could reveal the sex of
the foetus, people are seen to take the test the mostly for knowing the sex of
the foetus instead of the possible genetic anomalies.
(ii) Alarmingly,
biological techniques are being increasingly misused to produce improved
variety of infective agents for using them as bioweapons. Such misuse includes the development of
antibiotic-resistant micro-oranisms with increased infectivity.
For example, anthrax is an acute
infectious disease caused by the spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Spores of B.
anthracis can be produced and stored in
a dry form keeping them viable for decades in storage or after release.
If a cloud of anthrax spores is released at a strategic location to be inhaled
by the individuals under attack may act as an agent of effective weapon of bioterrorism.
Important points :-
µ Steps of Scientific Method: - Observation, Hypothesis formulation,
Testing of Hypothesis and Developing Theories.
µ Fleming discovered penicillin in the culture of the bacterium , Staphylococcus. The penicillin found by
Fleming was a toxic product of the blue mould Penicillium notatum that contaminated his culture of bacteria and
was destroying the bacteria.
µ Cuvier was the first to identify the fossils of extinct bird-like reptile and
laid the foundation of palaeontology.
µ Lamarck first discarded the idea of ‘fixity’ of species. Schlieden the
first statement on cell theory.
µ Darwin
proposed natural selection as a mechanism of
evolution of species.
µ The concept of spontaneous origin of life was countered by Pasteur, who proposed the germ theory
of disease.
µ James D. Watson and Francis
H.C. Crick discovered the structure of Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid (DNA) in 1953
and this triggered a new ear of molecular biology.
µ W.T. Astbury, a British scientist, first used and defined the term ‘molecular biology’
in 1950.
µ Har Gobind Khorana shared the Nobel Prize in 1968 with Robert W. Holley and Marshall W. Nirenberg “for their
interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis.”
µ Norman Ernest Borlaug won Nobel Prize in 1970 for his “green revolution”.
µ Ian Wilmut and Campbell produced the
first live, healthy sheep clone, Dolly, form
fully differentiated adult mammary cells in 1996.
µ In an attempt to reap the fruits of genetic engineering , the U.S. Department
of Energy and the National Institute of Healths has launched the U.S. Human
Genome project in 1990. The project aims to identify all the approximate 30,000
genes in human DNA determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs
that make up human DAN.
µ The scientific classification of organisms, including their naming and
identification is called Taxonomy or
Systematics.
µ Morphology is the aspect of biology that deals with the study of form, shape, size
and structure of plants and animals.
µ The study of morphology of internal systems or organs constitutes what
is called Anatomy.
µ The historical change in the properties of a population of organisms
over generations is called organic
evolution and this branch of biology is considered as Evolutionary Biology.
µ The study of fossils is called Palaeontology.
µ The study of the structure and composition of cells and tissues under
the microscope is called Cytology and
Histology respectively.
µ The branch of biology that deals with the mechanism of functioning of
the life processes is referred to as Physiology.
VARIOUS BRANCHES OR PROFESSIONS FOR BIOLOGIST
F Agronomy : Management of farms and the
science of crop
production.
F Soil Science :
Study of soil and its conservation.
F Pathology :
The science dealing with the nature of diseases,
their causes, symptoms and effect.
F Breeding :
To produce improved varieties by selective mating.
F Veterinary medicine : Science dealing with the diseases of domesticated
animals
and their health care.
F Entomology :
A branch of zoology deals that with the structure,
habits andclassification of insects.
F Fishery : The occupation or industry of catching fish or
other products of the sea, lakes or rivers.
F Poultry Science :
Science dealing with domestic fowls, such as
chickens,
Ducks
and geese.
F Sericulture : The breeding and treatment of silkworms for
producing raw silk.
F Apiculture :
The rearing of bees, beekeeping for commercial
purposes.
F Forestry :
The science of developing and conserving forests.
F Microbiology :
The science dealing with the structure, function,
uses of microscopic organisms.
F Food technology :
Processing and preservation of foods.
F Biomedical Engineering : Production
of spare parts for man implants,
artificial limbs, heart and lung machines etc.
F Medicine : The science of treating diseases with drugs or
curative substances.
OTHER BRANCHES
F Agrastology :
Study of grasses
F Algalogy : (Phycology). Study of algae.
F Anaesthesiology : Branch dealing with practice of anaesthesia
(induction
of inability to feel pain).
F Angiology :
Study of blood vascular system including arteries
and veins.
F Anthology (Bessey) :
Study of flower and flowering plants.
F Anthropology : Study related to origin, development and culture
of present and past races of humans.
F Araneology :
Study of spiders.
F Arboriculture :
Cultivation of trees and shrubs.
F Arthrology :
Study of joints.
F Auanology : Study of growth
F Bacteriology :
(Ehrenberg). Study of bacteria.
F Biochemistry :
(Neuberg. 1903). Science connected with chemistry
(composition, chemical nature, mode of formation,
functioning ) of living matter.
F Bioenergetics : Flow of energy and energy
transformations.
F Bionomics : Ecology.
F Bonsai :
The art and hobby of growing dwarf form of trees
and shrubs in pots.
F Bryology : Study of bryphytes.
F Cardiology : Study of heart
F Chirology :
(Cheirology). Communication system for deaf and
mute
by sign language.
F Chondrology : Study
of cartilages
F Cnidology : Study of coelenterates
F Craniology :
Study of skulls.
F Demography : Study
of populations.
F Dentistry :
Care of teeth including cure, removal, filling and
replacement.
F Dermatology : Study
of skin and other body coverings.
F Desmology :
Anatomy / study of ligaments.
F Endocrinology :
Study of endocrine glands, hormones and their
effects.
F Enzmology : Study
of enzymes and their functions.
F Epidemiology :
Study of distributions, causes and control
measures of infection diseases.
F Ethology :
Study of animal behaviour.
F Floriculture : Cultivation
of plants for their flowers.
F Gastroenterology :
Study of alimentary canal or stomach, intestine
and their diseases.
F Geology : Science
of earth.
F Gerontotherapy : Treatment of disease in the aged.
F Gerontology : Study
of ageing and senescence.
F Gynaecology : Study
of female reproductive organs.
F Haematology :
Study of blood.
F Helminthology :
Study of
parasitic worms.
F Hepatology : Study of liver.
F Herpetology : Study
of reptiles and amphibians/creeping
animals.
F Hypnotherapy :
Treatment through hypnotism.
F Ichthyology :
Study of fishes.
F Immunology : Study
of immunity or resistance to disease.
F Kinesiology : Science dealing with inter-relationship of
anatomy and physiology with
respect to
movements.
F Laryngology : Study of larynx.
F Leprology :
Study of leprosy and its cure.
F Lichenology : Study
of lichens.
F Malariology :
Study of various aspects of malaria and its cure.
F Mammology : Study
of mammals.
F Mastology :
Study of breasts including teats.
F Melanology : Study of development and loss of body pigments.
F Monerology : Study of monera.
F Mycology : Study of fungi.
F Myology (Sarcology) : Study of muscles.
F Neurology : Study of nervous system.
F Odontology :
Study of teeth and gums.
F Oncology : Study of cancers and tumours.
F Ophthalmology : Study of eyes.
F Ornithology :
Study of birds.
F Orthopaedics : Diagnosis and repair of disorders of locomotory
system (bones, joints, etc).
F Osteology : Study of bones
F Paediatrics : Branch of medicine dealing with children.
F Parasitology : Study of parasites.
F Phylogeny : Evolutionary history.
F Physiotheraphy : Treatment of body defects through massage and
exercise.
F Protistology :
Study of protests.
F Radiology :
Science dealing with X-rays and other imaging
techniques for medical diagnosis.
F Rhinology : Study of nose and olfactory organs.
F Rhinoplasty :
External alteration of nose through surgery.
F Serology : Study of serum; interaction of antigens and
antibodies in the blood.
F Serpentology : (= Ophiology), Study of snakes.
F Sonography : Ultrasound imaging.
F Sonology :
Study of hearing.
F Toxicology : Study of harmful effects of drugs and other
substances.
F Tricology : Study of hairs.
F Urology : Science
dealing with structure, functions and
disorders of urinary tract (urinogenital tract in
males).
F Virology : Study
of viruses.
F Zoogeny :
Origin and development of animals.
F Zoogeography : Study
of geographical distribution of animals.
F Zoopathology : Study of animal diseases.
Contributions Contributors
Cell theory Schleiden
and Schwann
Central Dogma of Molecular Genetics (Name) Crick
Chromosomal Theory of Linkage Morgan and Castle
Chromosomal Theory of inheritance Sutton and Boveri
Cohesion Theory of Ascent of Sap Dixon
and Jolly
Double fertilization of Angiosperms Nawaschin and Guingard
Gene Theory (Linkage of genes) Morgan
Germplasm Theory Weissmann
Germ Theory of
disease L.Pasteur
Induced fit Hypothesis of enzyme Koshland
Mutation Theory Hugo
de Vries
Omnis cellula e cellula R. Virchow
One gene one enzyme theory Beadle and Tatum
Operon Concept of Gene action Jacob and Monod
Organic evolution Darwin
and Wallace
‘Protoplasm is the physical basis of life’ Huxley
(Book)
Sol gel theory of amoeba locomotion Hyman,
Pantin and Mast
Survival of the fittest (trrm) Spencer
Telome Theory
of Pteridophyta Zimmermann
Theory of
Accquired characters Lamarck
Theory of Natural
Selection Charles
Darwin
Tunica Corpus Theory Schmidt
INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES
Inventions and discoveries Contributors
ATP Lohmann (1929)
Blood groups A, B and O K. Landsteiner
(1900)
Blood groups AB de
Castello and Sturli (1902)
C3
pathway of plants Malvin Calvin
C4
pathway of plants Hatch
and Slack
Chargaff’s rule of DNA base composition Chargaff
First test tube baby Edwards
and Steptoe
First vaccination Edward Jenner
Heterothallism in fungi Blakeslee
Insecticidal properties of DDT Muller
(1939)
Jumping genes (transposons) Mc Clintock
Patau’s syndrome K.
Patau
Penicillin A.
Fleming (1920)
Photophosphorylation in chloroplast
Amon
TMV virus (discovery) Lwanowski
Vitamin Funk
(1911)
CONNECTING AND MISSING LINKS OF BIOLOGICAL WORLD
Link Between
the groups
Actinomycetes Bacteria
and Fungi
Archaeopteryx Birds
and Reptiles
Balanoglossus Chordates
and nonchordates
Chimaera (rat or rabbit fish) Bony and Cartilagenous fishes
Club moss Bryophytes and Pteridophytes
Cycas Pteridophytes
and Gymnosperms
Gnetum Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
Neopilina Annelida
and Mollusca
Ornithorhynchus (Duck billed Platypus) Reptiles
and Mammals
Peripatus (Walking worm) Annelida and Arthropoda
Protopterus (Lungfish) Pisces and Amphibia
Rickettsia Virus
and Bacteria
Virus Living and non-living
COMMON ABBREVIATIONS IN BIOLOGY
ABA Abscisic acid
ACTH Adrenocorticotrophic
Hormone
ADH Antidiuretic
Hormone
AIDS Acquired
Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
ATP Adenosine
triphosphate
ATPase Adenosine
triphosphatase
BCG Bacille
Calmette-Guerin (attenuated form of
tuberculosis)
BMR Basal
Metabolic Rate
BOD Biological
Oxygen Demand
2,4-D 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic
acid
DDT Dichloro
diphenyl trichloroethane
DLC Differential
Leucocyte Count
ECG Electrocardiogram
EDTA Ethylenediamine
tetra acetic acid
ELISA Enzyme-Linked
Immunosorbent Assay
FAD Flavin
adenine dinucleotide
FADH Reduced
Flavin adenine dinucleotide
FMN Flavin
mononucleotide
GDP Guanosine
diphosphate
GLC Gas-Liquid
Chromatography
Hfr High
frequency recombination cell
HIV Human
Immunodeficiency Virus
HMP Hexose
Monophosphate Pathway
IAA Indole
Acetic Acid
IMI Intramuscular
Injection
LH Luteinizing Hormone
LSD Lysergic Diethylamide
NAA Naphthalene Acetic Acid
NADP Nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate
NOR Nucleolar organizing region
OPV Oral
Polio vaccine
P680 Reaction centre of
Photosystem II
P700 Reaction centre of
Photosystem I
PEP Phosphoenol
pyruvate
PFR Phytochrome far red
PR Phytochrome red
RB Red blood corpuscles
RUBP (RUDP) Ribulose bishosphate
Rubisco Ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase oxygenase
TLC Thin Layer Chromatography or
Total
Leucocyte Count
TMV Tobacco
mosaic virus
UTP Uridine
triphosphate
WBC White blood corpuscles
TALLEST
Angiosperm Eucalyptus (Australian
species, 114m)
Animal Giraffe (Giraffa
camelopardalis)
Gymnosperm Sequoia sempervirens (111.25
m)
Monocot Plant Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera)
SMALLEST / SHORTEST
Angiospermic flower Wolffia (0.1 mm)
Angiospermic plant Lemna (Duckweed)
Ape Gibbon
Bone in man Ear ossical Stapes (2.
6-3.4mm)
Bird Humming
bird of Cuba,
(helenae)
Cell PPLO
Cell of vertebrate Squamous epithelium
Endocrine gland Pituitary
Gymnosperm Zamia pygmea
Invertebrate Major Phyla Porifera
Number of animal chromosome Ascaris
(2)
Number of plant chromosome Haplopappus
gracilis (2n =4)
Pollen grain Orchid
Pteridophyta Azolla
Longest
Bone of man Femur
Cell Neuron
Creeper (Plant) Elephant creeper (Entada
pursaetha)
Leaf Raphia vinifera (30-50 ft)
Largest/Biggest/Heaviest
Alga Macrocystis macrocarpa (Brown
alga, Kelp 60
m)
Amphibian Cryptobranchus
Antherozoid Cycas circinalis
Archegonium Bryophyte (Moss)
Biome (richest in terms of plant species) Tropical
rain forest
Bird sanctuary Bharatpur
Class (of plantae) Angiosperms
Coral reef in world Great barrier reef of North East Coast of
Australia (2 X 103 kms.)
Exocrine gland Liver
Flower Rafflesia arnoldi
Largest Forest area in India Madha
Pradesh
Number of Animal chromosomes Aulocantha
(Radiolarian; = 1600)
Number of Plant chromosomes Ophioglossum (Pteridophyte, Adler’s
tongue,
2n = 1262)
Plant cell Acetabularia (green alga)
Pollen grain in Angiosperms Mirabilis
Primate Gorilla
Phylum (of Animals) Arthropoda
IMPORTANT DATES
Antileprosy day 30 th January
Blood Donation day Ist October
Doctor’s Day Ist July
Human Right day 10th December (To commemorate
the death of
Alfred Nobel)
International day of Biodiversity 29th December
International Thalassaemia day 8th May
& World Red. Cross day
Kisan Divas (National Farmer’s Day) 23
rd December
National Pollution Prevention day 2
nd December
Van Mahotsava (Festival of tree Plantation) 1 st week of February and
July
Vigyan Dives (National Science day) 28
February
World AIDS day 1 st December
World Earth day 22 nd April
World Environment day 5th
June
World Forest day 21st March
World Health day 7th April
World Literacy day 8th September
World Ozone day 16th September
World Population day 11th July
World Wild Life Week day 1st Monday of October.
GLANCE AT HUMAN BODY
Largest artery Abdominal aorta
Largest bone Femur
Largest heterocrine organ Alimentary canal
Largest endocrine gland Thyroid
Largest gland Liver
Largest salivary gland Parotid
gland
Largest vein Inferior Vena cava
Least regenerative capacity brain
Longest cell in the body Neuron
Longest cranial nerve Vagus
Longest nerve of the body Sciatic
Muscles: Number 639
Smallest Stapedius
Largest Gluteus maximus
Longest Sartorius
Number of cranial nerves 12 pairs
Number of spinal nerves 31 pairs
Smallest cranial nerve Abducens
Smallest endocrine gland Pituitary
Speed of Sneezing 60-100 miles/hour
spinal cord: weight 35 gm.
length 42-45
cm.
(2) UNDERSTANDING OF LIFE
µ The dictionary meaning of life is the property that distinguishes living
beings from non-living objects.
µ Protoplasm is the physical basis of life.
The basic features of living organisms:-
(i) Cellular structure (ii) Metabolism (iii) Irritability and Sensitivity (iv) Adaptation
(v) Growth and Development (vi) Reproduction (vii) Homeostasis
Levels of Biological Organisation –
µ Biological organisation starts with submicroscopic molecular level passes through microscopic cellular level and microscopic
or macroscopic organismic level and
ends the biosphere.
µ The hierarchy of biological organisation reveals that atoms are the
lowest unit at the molecular level while the cells are smallest unit at
microscopic level.
µ With in the ecosystem, an individual forms the smallest unit. A larger
unit then ecosystem is the landscape, which is a geographical unit with
history.
Organisation
is Regulated by four Processes :-
1. Aggregation : Coming together e,g. atoms molecules , cells form
tissues and individuals form
population.
2. Interactions : Partners of an aggregate
are influenced by one another.
e.g. hydrogen and oxygen in
water, population forms a community.
3. Equilibrium : Development of coordination or stability e.g.
Breathing by various organs.
4. Change : A
new product or structure e.g. water and H2O2 from hydrogen and oxygen.
In nonliving world the organisation level is upto the level of molecule
and compounds they aggregate to form mixture, colloids and crystals.
Atoms :- Nature’s building material -
µ Any material in the universe that has mass and occupies a space is
defined as matter. The building blocks of matter are atoms . Atoms aggregate
and constitute elements.
µ About 98 percent of the mass of every living organism , be that a
bacterium or a human being is composed of just six elements, such as carbon (C)
hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), phosphorous (P) and sulphur (S).
µ Elements that are required by an organism in minute quantities are
considered as trace element.
e.g.
Ca, K, Na,, Mg, I etc.
Micromolecules and Macromolecules
About 5000types of biomolecules are found in
living beings, which are divided in two categories.
1. Micromolecule: They are small in size and have low molecular weight.
e.g. H2O, NaCl, Glucose,
Amino Acids.
2. Macromolecules: They are large in size,
have high molecular weight and are complex molecules. They are formed by the
condensation or polymerization of micromolecules.
e.g. Proteins,
Polysaccharides, nucleic acids.
Water is the Polar Molecule –
Molecules that exhibit charge separation are called polar molecules because of their magnetic poles. Water is a polar
molecule. In the water molecule, the oxygen atoms bears a partial negatively
charge (δ-) and each hydrogen atom a partial positive charge (δ+) . In liquid
water, the negatively charged oxygen atom of one molecule of water is attracted
to the positively charged hydrogen atom of another molecule of water. The bond
resulting from this attraction is called a hydrogen
bond.
 |
Hydrogen Bonds are of Great Advantage in the
Biological System –
A hydrogen bond is a weak bond. It has about one-tenth (10%) of the
strength of a covalent bond between a hydrogen atom and an oxygen atom. Weak
hydrogen bonds are of great advantage in the biological systems. The reason is
that the contact between the molecules becomes very brief. The molecules
separate immediately after reacting with one another.
Electron Transfer and lonic Bonding in Sodium
Chloride:-
µ Sodium chloride plays an important role in the maintenance of
erythrocytes in the blood.
µ Na+ and Cl-ions participate in the transport of materials through cell
membrances.
µ About two-third of our body is formed of water. Between 70% and 90% of
living cells is water.
µ Water is an effective solvent because it is capable of forming hydrogen
bond.
Principal Inorganic Source of Carbon (CO2)
–
Our atmosphere contains only about 0.03 percent carbon dioxide (CO2).
Before it can take part in chemical reactions, CO2 needs to get dissolved in water. The thin
aqueous film covering almost every cell is sufficient to dissolve CO2 .The dissolved CO2 then reacts with water and forms carbonic acid. CO2
and H2O are the raw materials from which plants produce many complex
essential organic compounds.
Macro molecule –
µ Large and complex assemblies of simple biological molecules are called
macromolecules.
µ Macromolecules are traditionally grouped into four major categories :
carbohydrates, lipids or fats, proteins and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates - The Main Energy Storage Molecules
Lipids - Major
Group of Insoluble Hydrocarbons having Many functions
Protein - A
structural and Functional Make up of Cells
Nucleic Acids - Information Storage Device of Cells
Important Points –
µ Membranes often contain steroids.
This is a type of lipid that contains four
carbon rings. The steroid cholesterol
is present on most of the animal cell membranes.
µ Terpenes, component of many biological pigments (e.g. chlorophyll in plants and
the visual retinal pigment of animals), are long chain lipids. Rubber is also a terpene.
µ Prostaglandins are formed of 20 carbons and are modified fatty acids. Prostaglandins act as local chemical
messenger in many vertebrate tissues.
µ All proteins are formed of sub-units called amino acids.
µ It is the chemical properties of the side groups of amino that determine
the types and
functions of proteins
µ If the side group is polar or ionic, the amino acid is soluble in water
and if it is nonpolar at a
pH 6.5 to 7 the amino acid is insoluble in water.
µ The amino acids building blocks linked together by covalent bonds called
peptide bonds.
These bonds form a chain of amino acid units which
is called polypeptide chain. Protein molecules often consist of more then one
polypeptide chain.
µ About 50 percent of the dry weight of living matter is protein. Most
organisms have between
1000 and 50,000 proteins.
µ The nucleic are linear polymers of repeating monomer subunits called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide is formed of a pentose sugar, a
phosphate group and a nitrogenous base (purine or pyrimidine).
Energy:
µ Energy is the capacity to do work. It exists in several forms – Eg.
mechanical energy, sound energy, chemical energy, thermal energy, kinetic
energy, potential energy etc.
µ All the thing (Living or nonliving) contain energy in some or the other
forms.
The Energy Transfer Devices of Life –
Cellular
activities such as growth, motion and active transport of ions the cell
membrane require energy. No cell manufactures energy but all organisms take in
energy and transform it into other kind to do many kinds of work. Green plants
and bacteria take in solar energy to produce their own chemical energy (food).
Energy is often Transferred with Electrons –
All atoms possess energy. It takes work to keep the electrons in the
orbital of an atom. Virtually, all the energy for living organism comes as
radiation in the form of photons from the and is captured by electrons.
During
chemical reactions electrons are transferred from one atom to another. The loss
of an electron is called oxidation, whereas the gain of an electron is regarded
as reduction. Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions play a key role in the flow
of energy through biological systems.
What is Enthalpy and Free Energy?
µ In a biological system, the total energy including usable energy that can
do work and unusable energy that is lost to disorder is called enthalpy.
µ The amount of usable energy that is available for doing work temperature
and pressure are uniform throughout the system is the free energy. It is ‘free’ because it is available for work under
certain conditions.
Note:
Activation Energy:- The energy required
to destabilize chemical bonds and to initiate a chemical reaction is called activation energy.
Spontaneous Reactions: - Reactions that occur without outside intervention,
release free energy and can perform work are called spontaneous reactions.
Exergonic Reactions: - Energy yielding chemical reactions are known as Exergonic reactions.
µ An Exergonic reaction has an endergonic first step because for two
molecules to combine, they must come unusually close and one or more
pre-existing bonds must break frequently.
Endergonic Reaction: - A chemical reaction to which a net input of free
energy from outside source is needed for its initiation is called endergonic
reaction.
How Energy Flows :-
µ Energy and its transformation is governed by
two basic laws thermodynamics –
1. First Law of Thermodynamics
:-
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Energy keeps changing from
to another form.
Eg.Radiant
energy into chemical energy in photosynthesis. Chemical energy of cell is
transformed into various forms of energy.
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics
or Law of Entropy:
µ Any system like this universe when left to itself tends to increase
‘Entropy’. Entropy means disorder or randomness.
µ This law states that every transfer or transformation of energy makes
the universe disordered.
Energy keeps flowing from higher to lower energy areas, the loss of
energy occurs in these energy changing reactions . This loss of energy is
always dispersed into unailable heat energy. So no transformation of energy is
100% efficient . This loss energy increase entropy in a system.
Free
energy from sun minimizes entropy. All living things need a continuous input of
energy so as to maintain order. This is taken from sun either directly like
green plants or indirectly from food.
Energy transfer or energy transformation
All matter (living or non living) contains energy. Energy is the
capacity to do work. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. This is the
first law of thermodynamics.
Whenever
work is done energy is either transformed or transferred . Such change in
energy occur continuously in a living cell.
µ Example of energy transformation:-
Light energy from Sun → By photosynthesis → Into chemical energy in
in green cells the
form of food molecules.
µ Example of energy transfer:-
Respiration →
Energy formed
→ Used in synthesis, growth,
(Stored in
the form of ATP) development,
repair
Entropy
When there is a transfer of energy from one system to another then,
there is a loss of energy in this process i.e. whole (100%) energy is not
transferred.
When
continuous loss of energy takes place then entropy increases (i.e. degree of
randomness increases) and due to much increase in entropy, cell or organism
(system) can die. Therefore in case of high entropy or in conditions of high
energy loss, the cell is provided with an extra source of free energy. And the
loss of energy is maintained.
The
free energy decreases the entropy i.e. balance the loss of energy. There are
many sources of free energy – for e.g. –
(1) Trapping of solar energy by
autotrophic plants.
(2) Synthesis of energy from food.
Organisms are Open systems
If energy can never be destroyed (First law of
Thermodynamics) then what prevents the recycling of energy ? Answer to this
question can be found in the Second law of
Thermodynamics. The term ‘system’ denotes any part of the universe containing
specified matter and energy and whose energy transformations are studied in
thermodynamics . The rest of the universe remains outside the system and is
considered as surroundings. In an open system, such as living cells, matter and
energy can be transferred between the system and the surroundings. The very
term ‘open’ refers to the fact that there is exchange of materials and energy
between the organisms and their surroundings.
µ Organisms are open systems
because they interact continuously with their environment.
µ A closed
system is one that does not exchange matter and energy with its
surroundings. For instance, a warm liquid is placed in a thermos flask or a
bottle and the lids are tightened . The thermos flask more or less represents a
closed system. There is no question
of exchange of matter between the internal environment of the thermos flask and
its surroundings. So far as energy is concerned, the liquid remains warm for considerable
period of time, dependignupon the efficiency of the thermos flask. During this
period, the heat energy of the liquid is not released outside and it moves
inside. This keeps the liquid warm. Hence thermos flask represents an example
of closed system.
µ The first law of thermodynamics applies to the
universe as a whole or to any close system in the universe.
Open system, Steady state and Homeostasis
µ Open system: The system which has a continuous inflow of energy
(direct of indirect) is called an open system. A living organium must have
constant access to free energy or also its organisation will collapse over
time, leading to death.
µ Steady state : When the rate of input of matter and energy equals
to the rate of output of matter and energy it is called steady system.
For e.g., living organism must be continuously supplied with
inputs such as water, O2, energy and a variety of materials. Without
these, the organism can not maintain itself. There must also be an output of CO2,
nitrogenous waste and heat which are products of chemical reactions, and which
would be harmful to the organism if they are allowed to accumulate.
O2 → Cell → CO2
Glucose
→ Cell → Waste products
(Nitrogenous compound)
Homeostasis – A function of Regulatory system
All organisms maintain relatively constant internal
conditions different from their environment. For this, many organisms have regulatory
mechanisms, which co-ordinate their functions, such as providing the cells with
nutrients, transporting substances through the body. Others simply adjust to
the environment by adopting the temperature, salinity and other physical
aspects of their surroundings.
µ In any case, maintenance of a
dynamic constancy of the internal environment or steady state is termed as
homeostasis.
Example of Homeostasis :-
(1) When you enter a darkened cinema hall from
bright you can see almost nothing at first. Within a few seconds you are able
to adjust your sight to the dim light and move about.
(2) Our heart normally beats at a constant pace
of 72 times per minute. Bu t when we run, the rate of heart beat increases.
This is because of the need for increased and faster blood supply to the
tissues which have done extra work. But after sometime the normal rate of heart
beat is restored.
(3) The body temperature rises after exercise. It
leads to increased sweating. As the sweat evaporates the body cools and the
body temperature lowers down.
(4) Soon after meals blood glucose level rises
due to absorption from alimentary canal. Pancreas produces insulin which
induces glycogenesis in liver and muscles (Glucose → Glycogen). Due to this
glucose level in blood falls.
(5) Concentrated urine is produced whenever the
body has less water availability. This is done by ADH (Secreted by pituitary
gland). This hormone increases the permeability of the wall of DCT and
collecting duct. While in case of excess water ADH is not secreted and dilute
urine is passed out.
Thermoregulation
µ In the living cells, thermal energy (heat) is
produced during exergonic reactions of metabolism . The vast majority of
vertebrates (fishes, amphibians, reptiles) and plants lose most of their
thermal energy to their environment. Such animals are called ectothermic. These organisms often
depend on their environment for temperature regulation. Their skin may appear
as either cold or warm, depending on the environment from which they have been
taken for examination. If any one of them is picked up from a hibernaculum or
caught beside a cold body of water, it is likely that the skin will be cold.
This is the reason for calling them as poikilothermous.
Alternatively, if an animal is examined during warm afternoon while it was
basking in the sun, its skin will appear warm. Actually, these animals save
energy for utilizing it in other functions like reproduction.
µ Mammals, birds and a few fishes (e.g. tuna fish and
sword fish), instead of losing thermal energy, actually retain it for use. They
have developed insulating devices, such as fat, hair, feathers, etc., for
retardation of heat loss to the environment. They are endothermic. Their body temperature remains relatively constant,
which is usually higher then that of the environment. For this reason they are
called homeothermous.
µ Mammals, birds and a few fishes are endothermic and
homeothermous because they retain thermal energy with the aid of
thermoreceptors.
Homeothermy
in Humans
µ Being a
mammal we are endothermic and homoeothermic as well. To maintain the body
temperature, which is 370C(98.60F), we havesensors that
detect the set point. This can be compared with the functioning of the
thermostat of a room air-conditioner machine . Usually , the temperature of the
thermostat is set at 21 0 C (700 F). If the temperature of the room rises
sufficiently above the set point, a sensor present within the thermostat
detects the change and activates the effector of the machine. The
air-conditioner then reverses the deviation from the set point of the
thermostat. Finally, the room temperature is controlled at the set point of the
thermostat.
µ Our
skin contains two types of sensory neurons . They are sensitive to the changes
in temperature outside our bodies. They are termed as thermoreceptors. Some of them are sensitive to cooler temperatures
and are called cold receptors, while
the others are sensitive to warmer temperatures and are called warm receptors. The former set is
stimulated by fall in temperature and the rise in temperature. Conversely, warming inhibits cold receptors
and cooling inhibits warm receptors. The warm receptors are located
immediately below the epidermis (skin), while the cold receptors are located
slightly deeper in the dermis. We have thermoreceptors also within the
hypothalamus of our brain. These receptors monitor the temperature of the
circulating blood and send the information of the body’s internal (core)
temperature to the brain.
µ The
thermoreceptors of the skin sense, say for example , any rise in external
temperature caused by a perturbing factor like the sun, and send the message to
the thermoreceptors of the hypothalamus, which detect the change in the
accompanying body temperature. The hypothalamus now responds by activating the
effector, that is, the sweat glands and the blood vessels of the skin. As a
result, release of sweat and dilation of the blood vessels are initiated, which
cause cooling and diffusion of body temperature. In other words, the set point
is defended by the hypothalamus. Since the regulation of temperature is by
cooling the body, in this case, it is in the negative side or reverse
direction. This type of control system is called negative feedback loop.
Biochemical
Pathways are Tightly Regulated:-
µ Operation
of each metabolic pathway is tightly under the control of cell’s regulatory
systems. Enzyme activity is sensitive to the presence of specific substances
that bind to the enzymes. A substance that binds to an enzyme and decreases its
activity is called an inhibitor, if
it increases the activity of an enzyme it becomes an activator.
µ The
regulation of simple biochemical pathways often depends on the allosteric site
on the enzyme that catalyses the first reaction in the pathway. An allosteric site is the part of an
enzyme, away from its active site, that can switch on/off the enzyme’s
function. In the metabolic pathways, the product of one reaction may serve
as the substarate for the next reaction. When necessary, the final end product
of one pathway may become the allosteric
inhibitor for the action of the first enzyme of that pathway. This method
of regulating mechanism is called feedback
mechanism. Thus the regulation of simple biochemical pathways often depends
on the feedback mechanism.
Adaptation –
µ Adaptation to the environment is one of the most distinctive features of
living beings.
µ Adaptation may be defined as any characteristic of an organism, which makes the
organism better suited to its environment.
µ Adaptation may be structural, physiological or behavioural in response
to the environment.
Types of Adaptations:-
1. Long
term Adaptations: - They are
permanent inheritable changes in structure and function produced in an organism
due to evolution for better mode of living and adjustment with the environment.
(a) Protrusion of ankle
bone for standing erect.
(b) Opposable thumb for
holding and gripping
(c) The beaks of birds are
of different shape for their specific feeding habits.
(d) The kangaroo uses its
thick tail as a fifth limb to balance its body.
(e) The desert
plants are either leaf less or have leaves modified to spines to check the loss
of
water, stem are water storing and have thick
cuticle covered by layer of wax.
(f) Female anopheles
requires mammalian proteins for egg formation so their mouth parts
are adapted for sucking blood.
2. Short term adaptations :They are temporary changes that are produced in
response to specific conditions and are meant for adjustment to unfavourable
conditions.
(a) Skin
becomes dark on exposure to sun light due to accumulation of skin pigment
melanin in the epidermis. It helps in protecting the underlying tissue from
ultra violet rays of the sun.
(b) The
dormant seeds suspend their activities and appear to be dead. In favourable
conditions dormancy is broken and the seeds germinate.
(c) A
hibernating animal suspends all the activities to save energy. It keeps its
metabolic rate very low. It survives on stored fats.
(d) Plants
show adaptative reactions e.g. phototropism (The shoot grows towards the light)
Geotropism (The root grow towards the gravity)
Important Point:-
µ Longest living plant – 43000 years old specimen of shrub Lomatia termanica.
µ A living individual contains over 5000 types of biomolecules.
µ Water constitutes 70-80% of living cells. Other constituents are 10-15 %
protein, 10-15% Lipids 5% other inorganic substance are 1 % carbohydrates.
µ Sodium chloride occurs in concentration of 0.9 gm/100 ml blood.
µ Blood glucose level for normal functioning should be 100 mg/100 ml
blood.
µ Unit of measurement in cell biology is nanometer or millimicron.
µ 3-D images are obtained with the help of scanning electron microscope
and x-ray microscope, All others give 2-D images.
µ SUDAN –III/IV is used for identification of FATS.
µ Schiff reagent is specific for DNA. This reagent was developed by
Schiff.
NATURE & SCOPE
OF BIOLOGY EXERCISE-1
1. In ancient India
which of the following is regarded as God of Medicine ?
(1) Susruta (2) Charaka
(3)
Dhanvantari (4)
Atreya
2. Who was the first physician in ancient India
who developed the concept of digestion, metabolism and immunity ?
(1) Atreya (2) Charaka
(3)
Agnivesa (4) Susruta
3. Which of the following is regarded as Father of surgery?
(1)
Andreas (2) William Harvey
(3)
Susruta (4)
Atreya
4. Which of the following is honoured as Father of anatomy?
(1)
Susruta (2)
William Harvey
(3) Andreas Vesalius (4) Atreya
5. A plant classified as dicot but without visible
cotyledon is:-
(1)
Cuscta (2) Charaka
(3)
Drosera (4) Dionaea
6. Science dealing with nose and olfactory organs is
(1)
Rhinology (2) Radiology
(3)
Dermatology (4) Kinesiology
7. The physical sufferings are often caused by bad
deeds in the previous birth. It may be called:-
(1)
Serenidipty (2) Teleology
(3)
Control experiment (4) Hypothesis
8. Herpetology is study of:-
(1) Reptiles and amphibians
(2)Snake
(3) Helminths (4) Mammals
9. Lightest wood is:-
(1) Tectona
(2) Morus
(3)
Hard Wichita (4) Ochroma
10. The correct match is –
Scientists
Associated with
(i) William Bateson A. Rediscovered
Mendel’s
contribution
(ii) T.H. Morgan B. Discovered that
genes are made
up of D.N.A.
(iii) O.T. Avery C. Introduced the
term
genetics
(iv) Hugo de Vries D.Created first
gene map
A
B C D
(1) (i) (ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(2) (iv) (iii)
(i) (ii)
(3)
(iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(4)
(iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
11. Match the names of branches of science listed under
Column I with the fields of study
given under Column II. Choose the
correct combination of alphabets:-
Column
I Column
II
(Branch of science)(Fields of study)
A.
Mycology P. Study of bird
B.
Ornithology Q. Study of worms
C.
Herpetology R. Study of fishes
D.
Ichthyology S. Study of fungi
T. Study of
snakes
(1)
A-P, B-S, C-R, D-T
(2) A-S, B-T, C-P, D-R
(3)
A-Q, B-S, C-R, D-T
(4)
A-S, B-P, C-T, D-R
12. Study of nuclcytology is:-
(1) Neurology (2) Mycology
(3)
Rhinology (4) Karyology
13. Chemotherapeutic value of penicillin was given by
(1) A. Fleming
(2)
Florey and chin
(3)
Schultz and Waksman
(4) Flemming
and Waksman
14. The correct match is:-
Column
I Column
II
(Science) (Contribution)
A. Andreas
Vesalius P. Micrographia
B. A.V. Leeuwenhoek Q. De Humani
Corporis
Fabrica
C. W. Harvey R. Species plantarum
D. C. Linnaeus S. Philosophic
Zoologique
E. Robert
Hooke T. Anatomical
Exercise on the
motion of
the
F. Lamarck heart and blood
(1) A-P, B-S, C-R, D-T
(2)
A-S, B-T, C-P, D-R
(3)
A-Q, B-S, C-R, D-T
(4)
A-S, B-P, C-T, D-R
15. Scientist associated with Indian Palaeobotany is: [BHU-2010]
(1) P. Maheswari (2) Birbal Sahni
(3) M.O.P. Iyengar (4) Swaminathan
16. Circulation of blood was discovered by :-
[Manipal-95]
(1) William
Harvey (2) Karl Landsteiner
(3) Watson
and Crick (4) Bose
17. Rearing of bees is:- [RPMT-96]
(1) Horticulture
(2) Apiary
(3)
Apiculture
(4) Poultry
18. Branch of science connected with diagnosis, prevention and cure of
mental disorders is :-
[AIMS-97]
(1) Psychiatry
(2) Psychology
(3)
Neurology
(4) Neuropsychiatry
19. Mexican dwart varieties of wheat were developed by:- [C.E.T.
chd.-2009]
(1) Sahani
(2) Swaminathan
(3) Borlaug
(4) Khush
20.Genetic engineering is connected with:-
(1) Development
of transgenic plants
(2) Development
of vaccination [A.F.M.C.97]
(3) Gene therapy
(4) All the above
21.Irrationalfearof disease is – [AIMS-97]
(1Algophobia
(2)Mysophobia
(3)Pathophobi
(4) Haematophobia
22. Improvement of human race through improvement of human environment
is- [MPPMT-98]
(1) Eugenics (2)Euphenics
(3)
Euthenics (4)Anthropology
23. Utilisation of living organisms for human welfare is: - [Manipal,
98]
(1) Ecobiology (2)
Applied
(3)
Basic biology (4) Biophysics
24. Metamorphosis is studied under: - [B.V.-2009]
(1) Neurology (2) Embryology
(3)
Cardiology (4)
Physiology
25. Study of human population growth comes under [Kerla-2010]
(1) Anthropology
(2) Sociology
(3)
Demography (4) Geography
26. Scientific enquiry about life in outer space is :
[Kerla-2011]
(1) Exobiology (2)Cryobiology
(3)
Investigative (4) Euphenics
27. In 1928, a scientist discovered the first effective antibiotic.
Scientist and antibiotics are :
[A.I.I.M.S.2000,
Manipal, 2000]
(1) Fleming
– streptomycin
(2)
Fleming –pencillin
(3) Waksman
– pencillin
(4) Waksman
– streptomycin
28. Choose the correct pair :-
(1) Sericulture-Fish
(2) Apiculture-Honey Bee
(3) Pisciculture-Silkworm
(4)
Silviculture-Silkworm
29. Match the
columns [Karnataka-2001]
Column I
Column II
a
Palynology p Silkworms
b Oncolohy q
Pollen grain
c
Phycology r Cancer
d
Sericulture s Algae
(1) a
– s, b – r, c – q, d – p
(2) a – q, b – r, c – s, d – p
(3) a –s, b – q, c – r, d – p
(4) a – r, b – q, c – s, d – p
30. Prevention of deterioration of human race through
reducing birth rate among defective
individuals is
[TNPCEE-2011]
(1) Positive euthenics
(2) Negative euthenics
(3)Negative euthenics
(4) Positive
euthenics
31. Which one of the following sequence is correct:
(1) Problem, defining, hypothesis,
observation, experiment [Pb. P.M.T. 2012]
(2) Observation,
problem, hypothesis,
defining, experiment
(3) Observation,
problem, defining, hypothesis,
experiment
(4) experiment
hypothesis, problem, defining,
observation,
32. Match the columns and pick up the
correct combination: - [Har. PMT-2002]
Column
I Column II
(a) Mendel (i) Zoology
(b) Borlaug (ii) Genetics
(c)
Galton (iii) Green revolution
(d) Aristotle (iv) Eugenics
(1) a –
(i), b – (ii), c – (iii), d – (iv)
(2) a –
(ii), b – (iv), c – (i), d – (iii)
(3) a –
(ii), b – (iii), c – (iv), d – (i)
(4) a –
(iii), b – (iv), c – (i), d – (ii)
33. Study of ants in :- [JIPMER-2002]
(1) Mycology
(2) Myrmecology
(3)
Malacology (4) Myology
34. Branch of botany connected with
food, fibre and wood yielding plants is :-
[MPPMT-2002]
(1) Suaruta (2) Charaka
(3)
Dhanvantari (4) Atreya
35. Acarology is study of:- [MPPMT-2002]
(1) Suaruta (2)
Charaka
(3)
Dhanvantari (4) Atreya
36. For solving a scientific problem which is not
correct
(1) Suaruta (2)
Charaka
(3)
Dhanvantari (4) Atreya
37. Science of engineering and
technology which is applied to life sciences is :- [AFMC-2003]
(1) Suaruta (2)
Charaka
(3)
Dhanvantari (4) Atreya
38. Match the column I and II and choose the correct
answer :- [Karnataka-2003]
Column I Column II
(a) Helminthology p Study
of
insects
(b) Entomology q
Study of
fungi
(c) Ornithology r
Study of
algae
(d) Phycology s Study of
birds
(e) Phycology t
Study of worms
(1)
a –p. b – s, c – q,
d – t
(2)
a – t, b – p, c – s,
d – r
(3)
a – s, b – t, c – r,
d – p
(4) a–r, b–p, c–s, d–q
 |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
UNDERSTANDING OF LIFE EXERCISE-2
1. All living beings show :-
(1)
Irritability
(2) Irregular shape
(3) Locomotion
(4) Absence of
coordination
2. Bending of a shoot towards light is :-
(1) Irritability
(2) Healing
(3) Regeneration
(4) A photochemical
reaction
3. Physical basis of life is :-
(1)
Cell (2) Nucleus
(3)
Protoplasm (4) Food
4. Fuelgen test is specific for :-
(1) Proteins (2) RNA
(3) Lipids (4)
DNA
5. Which type of organisation is found in only living
beings :-
(1) Atomic (2)
Mixture
(3) Molecular (4)
Subcellular
6. Organisation formed by individuals of a species is
:-
(1) Population (2)
Ecosystem
(3) Community (4)
All the above
7. Number of chemicals found in living cell is :-
(1) 25,000 (2)
2000
(3) 5000 (4) 500
8. Which one is a micromolecule :-
(1) Glucose (2)
Protein
(3) DNA (4) Glycogen
9. Salt concentration of blood is :-
(1) 0.9 gm/100 ml (2) 9 gm/100 ml
(3) 100 mg/100ml (4)500mg/100
ml
10. Glucose concentration of blood for normal body
function is :-
(1)
0.9 gm/100 ml
(2)
200 gm/100 ml
(3)
100 mg/100ml
(4)
500 mg/100 ml
11. Energy currency of a cell is :-
(1) Mitochondria (2)
Golgi body
(3) DNA (4)
ATP
12. Energy transfers or transformations are never 100% efficient . This is
due to :-
(1) Entropy (2)Homeostasis
(3) Aggregation (4)
Adaptation
13. During nerve conduction, electric energy is
produced . What is the source of this energy:-
(1) DNA (2)
RNA (3)
ATP (4) ACTH
14. What type of energy is needed to make up the loss
of energy in a living system :-
(1) Heat energy
(2) Free energy
(3) Light energy (4)Mechanical
energy
15. Use of tail as fifth limb by Kangaroo is an example of-
(1) Short term
adaptation
(2) Homeostasis
(3) Long term
adaptation
(4) Energy
transformation
16. Long term adaptation is :-
(1) Inheritable
(2) Formed due to
evolution
(3) Permanent (4) All the above
17. Which
organ remains functional for a few
hours
even after clinical death :-
(1) Minerals (2) Proteins
(3) Water (4) Fats
18. 80% of the living material of a cell is made
of
(1) Minerals (2) Proteins
(3)
Water (4) Fats
19. Sweating is meant for :-
(1)
Killing of skin bacteria
(2)
Regulation of body temperature
(3)
Removal of excess salt
(4)
Removal of excess water
20. 99% of living system is formed of four elements :-
(1) CHOP (2)
CHOS
(3) CNOP (4)
CHON
21. Ultimate source of energy is :-
(1) ATP (2) Sun
(3) Glucose (4)
Food
22. Pox virus contains …………. vitamin :-
(1) Riboflavin (2)
Biotin
(3) Both (1) & (2)
(4) Transcriptase
23. If feedback inhibition a metabolic pathway gets
‘Switched off’ by :-
(1) Lack of substrate
(2) Accumulation of end
product
(3) A rise in
temperature
(4) Competitive
inhibition
24. ACTH consists ……….. amino acids units :-
(1) 8500 (2)
39
(3) 4500 (4) 910,000
25. Hemocyanin of snail consists of ……….. amino acids
:-
(1) 910,000 (2)
8200
(3) 39 (4)
4500
26. The molecule which contain all the information for
carrying all the life process
(1) DNA (2) m-RNA
(3) r-RNA (4)
t-RNA
27. An example of short term adaptation is –
(a) Accumulation of
melanin in the skin
(b) The use of stored
fat in animals
undergoing hibernation.
(c) Dormancy of seeds.
(d) Phototropism of
stems and geotropism
of roots.
(1) a and b are correct
(2) b and c are correct
(3) All are correct
(4) None of the above
is correct
28. Long term adaptation helps in ]
(1) Evolution (2) Survival
(30 Both (1) & (2) (4)
None of these
29. The species which grow on exposed rocks is :-
(1) Selaginella
lepidophylla
(2) Myrothammus
(3) Craterostigma (4) Nepenthes
30. The largest macromolecule is :-
(1) RNA (2) DNA
(3) Proteins (4)
Fats
31. Who pointed out that “Life results due to a
relationship of molecules and is not the property of any one molecule” :-
(1) Darwin (2)
Weismann
(3) L. Pauling (4) None of these
32. What is the energy required in calories for formation of energy rich
bond between phosphorous and ADP molecule in DNA :-
(1) 2000 cal (2) 7600 cal
(3) 12.060 cal (4) 20,000 cal
33. Homeostasis refers to :-
(1) Positive and
negative feedback
(2) Positive feedback
(3) Negative feedback
(4) None of these
34. Dodo (flightless bird) recently got extinct from :-
(1) Indonesia (2)
Mauritius
(3) Australia (4)
India
35. The simplest amino acid is :-
[B.H.U.
1986, Manipal 1999. P.M.T. 1999]
(1) Glycine (2) Lysine
(3) Tyrosine (4) Aspartic acid
36. Steroid is :- [D.P.M.T.1999]
(1) Cholesterol (2) Thyroxine
(3) Vitamin A (4) Fatty acid ester
37. Water protects organisms from thermal shock due to
its high :- [A.M.U. 1991]
(1) Thermal
conductivity(2) Latent heat
(3) Dielectric
constant (4) All the above
38. Homeostasis is :-
[C.B.S.E..1991]
(1) Tendency to change
with change in
environment
(2) Tendency to resist change
(3) Disturbance in
regulatory control
(4) None of these
39. Cholesterol is :- [B.H.U.2009]
(1)Monosaccharide (2) Protein
(3) Sterol (4) Wax
40. Maintenance of internal favourable conditions
despite changes in external environment is :-
[B.H.U. 2002]
(1) Enthalpy (2)
Homoestasis
(3) Entropy (4) Steady state
41. Total heat content of a system is :
[Kamataka
2000]
(1) Free energy (2)
Enthalpy
(3) Entropy (4)
Kinetic energy
42. A person exposed to cold environment does not show
:- [D.P.M.T. 2001]
(1) Shivering
(2) Vasoconstriction of
peripheral vessels
(3) Increased secretion
of thyroid and
adrenal medulla
(4) Increased heart
beat and volume per
stoke
|
43. Which is correct about energy changes in
living
cells [A.M.U. 2001]
(1)
First energy transfer, then energy
transformation
(2) First energy
transformation then
energy transfer
(3) Both occur discontinuously
(4) Both occur continuously
44. Animals not possessing a fixed temperature are
called:- [C.M.C.2002]
(1)Homeotherms
(2)Mexotherms
(3) Poikilotherms
(4) Heterotherms
45. Which one is incorrect :-
[C.E.T. Chd. 2002]
(1) New individuals
replace the dead ones
(2) Homeostasis
produces a self regulated s teady state
(3)
Most homeostatic mechanisms operate
through feed-back systems
(4) Cell obtains
instructions for division
from a hereditary protein
NATURE &
SCOPE OF BIOLOGY STAT PMT EXAMS EXERCISE
1. The study of the energy transfer
and relationships between all living organisms is known as : [JHARKHAND -2000]
(1) Thermodynamics (2)
Bioenergetics
(3) Kinetic energy (4)1st
December
2. On which day we celebrate malarial day ?
[BIHAR-2003]
(1) 5th June (2) 15th August
(3) 20th October (4)
Spencer
3. ‘Philosophic zoologique’ was written by :
[UP
CPMT-2001, BIHAR-03]
(1) Lamarck
(2) de Vries
(3) Mendal
(4) Spencer
4. The book ‘Micrographia’ was written by :
[BIHAR-2002]
(1) Huxley
(2) Robert Hooke
(3) Fritsch
(4) J.D.Hooker
5. 5th June is
celebrated as [UP CPMT-2002]
(1) World forest day
(2) World environment
day
(3) World red cross day
(4) World food day
 |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
6. Study of environment and animal relation is [UP
CPMT-2002]
(1) Ecosystem
(2) phytosociology
(3) Biotic community (4) Ecology
7. Which of the following is connecting link between
reptiles and birds?
[UP
CPMT-2002]
(1) Archaeopterix (2) Euglena
(3) Neopiline (4) Latimeria
8. Cuscuta is a [UP
CPMT-2003]
(1) Parasitic plant (2) Symbiotic
(3) Predator (4) Decomposer
9. Which organism was used by Beadle and Tatum to
proposed one gene-one enzyme hypothesis? [UP CPMT-2004]
(1) E. coli (2) Nostoc
(3) Drosophila
(4) Neurospora
10. Pangenesis hypothesis was proposed by:
[MP PMT-2001]
(1) Weismann
(2) Gelton
(3) Wagner
(4) Darwin
11. World AID’s day is organised every year on:
[MP PMT-2002]
(1) 1st December (2)
6th December
(3) 15th December (4)
31st December
No comments:
Post a Comment